Abstract The GSTT1 and GSTM1 genes are key molecules in cellular detoxification. Null variants in these genes are associated with increase susceptibility to developing different types of cancers. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotypes in Mestizo and Amerindian individuals from the Northwestern region of Mexico, and to compare them with those reported worldwide. GSTT1 and GSTM1 null variants were genotyped by multiplex PCR in 211 Mestizos and 211 Amerindian individuals. Studies reporting on frequency of GSTT1 and GSTM1 null variants worldwide were identified by a PubMed search and their geographic distribution were analyzed. We found no significant differences in the frequency of the null genotype for GSTT1 and GSM1 genes between Mestizo and Amerindian individuals. Worldwide frequencies of the GSTT1 and GSTM1 null genotypes ranges from 0.10 to 0.51, and from 0.11 to 0.67, respectively. Interestingly, in most countries the frequency of the GSTT1 null genotype is common or frequent (76%), whereas the frequency of the GSMT1 null genotype is very frequent or extremely frequent (86%). Thus, ethnic-dependent differences in the prevalence of GSTT1 and GSTM1 null variants may influence the effect of environmental carcinogens in cancer risk.

RESUMOA investigação sobre Paracoccidioides brasiliensis tem-se centrado na célula de levedura, provavelmente devido à falta de características distintas no micélio. Em 1942 e, pela primeira vez, conídios laterais foram notados nos hifas dos fungos. Mais tarde, pesquisadores brasileiros, venezuelanos e argentinos descreveram "aleurias" quando o fungo foi cultivado em substratos naturais. Em 1970, os autores se interessaram pelos conídios e foram capazes de obtê-los em grande número e tratá-los como unidades individuais. A sua forma e tamanho foram definidos, e a presença de todos os elementos de uma célula eucariótica competente foram demonstrados. Conídios apresentam dimorfismo térmico e, além disso, quando administrados por via intranasal a camundongos BALB/c machos, são convertidos em leveduras nos pulmões e produzem lesões pulmonares progressivas com posterior disseminação para outros órgãos. Estudos sobre a interação de fagócitos-conídios foram reveladores e mostraram que estas estruturas versáteis permitem melhor compreensão das interacções entre hospedeiro e P. brasiliensis.

SUMMARYResearch on Paracoccidioides brasiliensis has centered in the yeast cell probably because of the lack of distinctive features in the mycelium. In 1942 and for the first time, lateral conidia were noticed in the fungus' hyphae. Later on, Brazilian, Venezuelan and Argentinean researchers described "aleurias" when the fungus was grown in natural substrates. In 1970 authors became interested in the conidia and were able to obtain them in large numbers and treat them as individual units. Their shape and size were defined and the presence of all the elements of a competent eukaryotic cell were demonstrated. Conidia exhibited thermal dimorphism and, additionally, when given intranasally to BALB/c male mice, they converted into yeasts in the lungs and produce progressive pulmonary lesions with further dissemination to other organs. Studies on the phagocyte-conidia interaction were revealing and showed that these versatile structures allow a better understanding of the host- P. brasiliensisinteractions.

Paracoccidioidomycosis is a systemic and endemic mycosis, restricted to tropical and subtropical areas of Latin America. The infection is caused by the thermal dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensisand Paracoccidioides lutzii. The diagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis is usually performed by microscopic examination, culture and immunodiagnostic tests to respiratory specimens, body fluids and/or biopsies; however these methods require laboratory personnel with experience and several days to produce a result. In the present study, we have validated and evaluated a nested PCR assay targeting the gene encoding the Paracoccidioides gp43membrane protein in 191 clinical samples: 115 samples from patients with proven infections other than paracoccidioidomycosis, 51 samples as negative controls, and 25 samples from patients diagnosed with paracoccidioidomycosis. Additionally, the specificity of the nested PCR assay was also evaluated using purified DNA isolated from cultures of different microorganisms (n= 35) previously identified by culture and/or sequencing. The results showed that in our hands, this nested PCR assay for gp43 protein showed specificity and sensitivity rates of 100%. The optimized nested PCR conditions in our laboratory allowed detection down to 1 fg of P. brasiliensisDNA.

The infectious process starts with an initial contact between pathogen and host. We have previously demonstrated that Paracoccidioides brasiliensis conidia interact with plasma proteins including fibrinogen, which is considered the major component of the coagulation system. In this study, we evaluated the in vitro capacity of P. brasiliensis conidia to aggregate with plasma proteins and compounds involved in the coagulation system. We assessed the aggregation of P. brasiliensis conidia after incubation with human serum or plasma in the presence or absence of anticoagulants, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, metabolic and protein inhibitors, monosaccharides and other compounds. Additionally, prothrombin and partial thromboplastin times were determined after the interaction of P. brasiliensis conidia with human plasma. ECM proteins, monosaccharides and human plasma significantly induced P. brasiliensis conidial aggregation; however, anticoagulants and metabolic and protein inhibitors diminished the aggregation process. The extrinsic coagulation pathway was not affected by the interaction between P. brasiliensis conidia and plasma proteins, while the intrinsic pathway was markedly altered. These results indicate that P. brasiliensis conidia interact with proteins involved in the coagulation system. This interaction may play an important role in the initial inflammatory response, as well as fungal disease progression caused by P. brasiliensis dissemination.

Introducción. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis es un hongo dimórfico térmico, que a temperatura ambiente se presenta como un moho productor de conidias, mientras que en el huésped se comporta como una levadura de gemación múltiple. Los mecanismos moleculares que rigen la germinación de conidia a micelio aún se desconocen. Objetivo. Estudiar en P. brasiliensis la cinética del proceso de germinación de conidia a micelio y determinar los genes expresados durante este proceso mediante la construcción y el análisis de una librería EST (Expressed Sequence Tag). Materiales y métodos. Para el estudio de la cinética de germinación, se produjeron y aislaron conidias de P. brasiliensis. Estas fueron incubadas en cultivos líquidos a 18°C por 24, 48, 72 y 96 horas, y se examinaron por microscopía de luz. A partir de conidias cultivadas por 96 horas, se construyó y caracterizó una librería EST, la cual representaría los genes expresados durante el proceso de germinación. Resultados. Durante el proceso de germinación de conidia a micelio, se observó 11,7±1,2%, 30±0,6%, 43±1,3% y 66±2,4% de germinación a las 24, 48, 72 y 96 horas de incubación, respectivamente. Además, se obtuvo una librería del proceso de germinación consistente en 129 secuencias agrupadas en cuatro secuencias contiguas y siete secuencias únicas, para un total de 11 posibles genes. Ocho secuencias (72,7%) no habían sido descritas anteriormente en otras librerías informadas para este hongo y podrían representar genes específicos de la germinación de conidia a micelio. Conclusiones. Éste es el primer reporte en el que se identifican genes no descritos anteriormente, que son expresados durante la germinación de conidia a micelio, proceso de gran importancia en la biología de P. brasiliensis.

Introduction. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis is a thermo-dimorphic fungus. At room temperature it grows as a mold that produces conidia, whereas in the vertebrate host it grows as a multiple-budding yeast. The molecular mechanisms involved in the germination from the conidia to the mycelia process remain unknown. Objective. The kinetics of conidia to mycelia germination process were studied in the dimorphic fungus P. brasiliensis. Gene expression during this process was evaluated by construction and analysis of an EST library. Materials and methods. For the germination kinetics study, P. brasiliensis conidia were isolated as single cell units. Then, they were cultured at 18° C in BHI (brain-heart infusion) broth for 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr. After each perion, they were examined by light microscopy. From conidia harvested at 96 hr, an EST library was constructed; at this stage the gene expression was presumed to be maximal for the germination process. Results. During the conidia to the mycelia developmental process, the following germination rates were observed: at 24 hr, 11.7±1.2%; at 48 hr, 30±0.6%; at 72 hr, 43±1.3%; and at 96 hr, 66±2.4%. At the 96 hour stage, an EST library was constructed. It consisted of 129 sequences grouped in 4 contigs and 7 singlets for a total of 11 possible genes. Eight of the sequences had not been described previously in other EST libraries of this fungus. Conclusions. New genes were identified that were expressed during the conidia to the mycelia germination process and may represent genes specific to the germination process.

Com a finalidade de determinar o papel da lisozima, um peptídeo antimicrobiano que pertence ao sistema imune inato, contra o fungo dimórfico Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, foram feitas co-culturas de uma linha de macrófagos alveolares murinos (MH-S) com as conídias do fungo na presença ou não do TNF-α e/ou um inibidor da lisozima; também foram feitos ensaios que avaliaram o efeito das concentrações fisiológicas e inflamatórias de lisozima diretamente sobre o ciclo de vida do fungo. Observamos que os macrófagos ativados com a citoquina tiveram um efeito significativo na inibição da transição conídia/levedura (p = 0,0043) e exerceram um efeito fungicida importante (p = 0,0044), matando mais de 27% das propágulas do fungo em comparação com os macrófagos não ativados. No entanto, após ser o inibidor seletivo da lisozima adicionado, o efeito fungicida foi revertido. Quando os propágulos do fungo foram expostos diretamente a diferentes concentrações da lisozima, um duplo efeito foi observado. Assim, as concentrações fisiológicas da enzima facilitaram o processo de transição conídia-levedura (p < 0,05). Contrariamente, as concentrações inflamatórias prejudicaram a transição fúngica (p < 0,0001). Quando as leveduras foram expostas a qualquer concentração de lisozima, sua capacidade de multi-brotação foi gravemente prejudicada (p < 0,0001). Além disso, mudanças ultra-estruturais, como a sub degradação, a fusão dos vacúolos dos lípidos, estruturas lamelares e interrupção da camada fibrilar foram observadas em conídios expostos à lisozima. Estes resultados sugerem que a lisozima poderia exercer um duplo papel no mecanismo antifúngico contra P. brasiliensis.

In order to determine the role of lysozyme, an antimicrobial peptide belonging to the innate immune system, against the dimorphic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, co-cultures of the MH-S murine alveolar macrophages cell line with P. brasiliensis conidia were done; assays to evaluate the effect of physiological and inflammatory concentrations of lysozyme directly on the fungus life cycle were also undertaken. We observed that TNF-α-activated macrophages significantly inhibited the conidia to yeast transition (p = 0.0043) and exerted an important fungicidal effect (p = 0.0044), killing 27% more fungal propagules in comparison with controls. Nonetheless, after adding a selective inhibitor of lysozyme, the fungicidal effect was reverted. When P. brasiliensis propagules were exposed directly to different concentrations of lysozyme, a dual effect was observed. Physiologic concentrations of the enzyme facilitated the conidia-to-yeast transition process (p < 0.05). On the contrary, inflammatory concentrations impaired the normal temperature-dependant fungal transition (p < 0.0001). When yeast cells were exposed to lysozyme, irrespective of concentration, the multiple-budding ability was badly impaired (p < 0.0001). In addition, ultra-structural changes such as subcellular degradation, fusion of lipid vacuoles, lamellar structures and interruption of the fibrilar layer were observed in lysozyme exposed conidia. These results suggest that lysozyme appears to exert a dual role as part of the anti-P. brasiliensis defense mechanisms.

La melanina es uno de los pigmentos más comunes y de mayor distribución en la naturaleza. Es responsable de la coloración de plantas y animales; se encuentra en los ojos, el cabello, la piel, el plumaje, la cáscara de los huevos, la cutícula de los insectos, la tinta de los cefalópodos y en la pared y el citoplasma de muchos microorganismos. En los humanos este pigmento se ha encontrado también fuera de la piel, en las neuronas de la sustancia nigra y en los hepatocitos. Entre los microorganismos que se han reportado como productores de melanina tenemos Vibrio cholerae, Mycobacterium leprae, Bacillus thurigiensis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciola gigantita Trichuris suis, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida albicans, Cladosporium carionii, Coccidioides immitis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Histoplasma capsulatum, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium marneffei, Pneumocystis carinii (jirovecii), Scedosporium prolificans, Scytalidium dimidiatum y Sporothrix schenckii; esto sin tener en cuenta los hongos dematiáceos, entre muchos otros. Esta revisión pretende hacer un compendio de las más recientes publicaciones sobre melanina relacionadas principalmente con su función, su importante contribución a la supervivencia en el ambiente y durante la infección, como factor de virulencia en diversos microorganismos, principalmente en hongos patógenos, y su papel como agente inmunomodulador, así como la reducida susceptibilidad que confiere contra muchos de los antimicóticos usados en la actualidad.

Melanin is one of the common pigments in nature; it is responsible for pigmentation in plants and animals. It is found in skin, eyes, feathers, egg shell, hair, insect cuticle, cuttlefish ink and wall and/or cytoplasm from many microorganisms. Melanin in humans is also present in substantia nigra and hepatocytes. Some microorganisms that have been reported producing melanin are: Vibrio cholerae, Mycobacterium leprae, Bacillus thurigiensis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Schistosoma mansoni, Fasciola gigantita, Trichuris suis, Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger, Blastomyces dermatitidis, Candida albicans, Cladosporium carionii, Coccidioides immitis, Cryptococcus neoformans, Exophiala (Wangiella) dermatitidis, Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Histoplasma capsulatum, Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, Penicillium marneffei, Pneumocystis carinii (jirovecii), Scedosporium prolificans, Scytalidium dimidiatum, Sporothrix schenckii, and most of the dematiaceous fungi. This review is focused on recent international publications concerning melanin analysing its capacity to survive in nature and during infection inside the host and its evasion of the immune response. Melanin acts as an inmunomodulador particle and it is known that its presence in many of microorganisms could protect them from microbicidal agents presently used.

Se determinó la sensibilidad al fluconazol y al voriconazol de aislamientos de Candida spp. obtenidos de la mucosa oral de 54 pacientes con sida hospitalizados en la ESE Hospital La María (Medellín, Colombia). Además, se comprobó la especie de tales aislamientos. Los pacientes eran todos adultos (promedio de 40,5 años, rango de 23 a 56) y la mayoría (77,8%) hombres. En 40 (71,1%) de ellos se obtuvo crecimiento de Candida spp. y en 6 (11,1%) se aisló más de una especie de Candida. La clasificación a especie reveló C. albicans, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis y C. glabrata. La determinación de la sensibilidad in vitro se hizo por difusión en agar con las especificaciones del CLSI de Estados Unidos (M44P). El 72,9% de los aislamientos de Candida spp. fueron sensibles al fluconazol; 6,3%, sensibles dependientes de la dosis, y 20,8%, resistentes. Para el voriconazol, 89,6% fueron sensibles; 8,3%, sensibles dependientes de la dosis y 2,1%, resistentes. La resistencia se observó en C. albicans y C. krusei. Estos resultados demuestran la efectividad de ambos antimicóticos y fue mayor la correspondiente al voriconazol. Igualmente se señala la importancia de las pruebas in vitro puesto que en pacientes con VIH/sida pueden encontrarse especies resistentes. Se ratifica la importancia de la clasificación por especie de las levaduras del género Candida.

Abstracts The susceptibilities to Fluconazol (FCZ) and voriconazol (VCZ) susceptibility of Candida spp. isolates, obtained from the oral mucosa of 54 AIDS patients hospitalized in Hospital La María (Medellín, Colombia) were assesed. Additionally, the yeast species were identified to species. Patients were all adults (mean, 40,5 years old, range 23 to 56) and most (77,8%) were males. Candida spp. was isolated from 40 of them (71.1 %) with 6 (11,1%) showing more than one species. The species identified were C. albicans., C. krusei, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis and C. glabrata. In vitro agar diffusion susceptibility testing was done according to the CLSI M44P specifications. Most of the Candida species (72.9%) were susceptible to fluconazole with 6,3% susceptible-dose-dependant (SDD) and 20.8% resistant. Voriconazole susceptibility was higher (89,6%) with 8,3% SDD and 2,1% resistant. Resistance was recorded for C. albicans and C. krusei isolates. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of both antifungals with voriconazole performing better. The importance of the in vitro susceptibility tests in HIV/aids patients harboring resistant species was demonstrated and indicated the need to classify all Candida isolate al Candida isolates to the species level.

A serologic study was undertaken in a group of 43 patients with active paracoccidioidomycosis who were treated in the same form (ketoconazole), for identical periods of time (6 months), and folio wed-up for various periods posttherapy. The tests employed were agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and complement fixation (FC). Also studied were 50 sera from patients with proven histoplasmosis and pulmonary aspergilloma, 30 patients with culturaly proven tuberculosis as well as 92 specimens from healthy individuals, residents in the endemic area for paracoccidioidomycosis. A single lot of yeast filtrate antigen was used throughout the study. The value of each test was measured according to GALEN and GAMBINO6. Both tests were highly sensitive, 89 and 93% respectively. Regarding their specificity, the AGID was totally specific while the CF exhibited 96.6% and 97% specificity in front of tuberculosis patients and healthy individuals respectively and 82% in comparison with patients with other mycoses. The concept of predictive value, that is, the certainty one has in accepting a positive test as diagnostic of paracoccidioidomycosis, favored the AGID procedure (100%) over the CF test. The latter could sort out with 93% certainty a patient with paracoccidioidomycosis among a group of healthy individuals and with 97.5% in the case of TB patients; when the group in question was composed by individuals with other deep mycoses, such certainty was lower (81%). The above results indicate that both the AGID and the CF tests furnish results of high confidence; one should not relay, however, in the CF alone as a means to establish the specific diagnosis of paracoccidioidomycosis.

Con el objeto de determinar el valor predictivo de las pruebas serológicas (F¡jación de Complemento, FC, e Inmunodifusión en Gel de Agar, IDGA), utilizadas regularmente en nuestro laboratorio para el diagnóstico y el seguimiento de la paracoccidioidomicosis, se analizaron los datos provenientes de 43 pacientes con la enfermedad. Tales pacientes fueron tratados en forma identica (Ketoconazol, 200 mg/dia por 6 meses); además ambas pruebas serológicas utilizaron un mismo lote de antigeno, eliminando asi posibles variables. Fuera de los sueros provenientes de los 43 pacientes con paracoccidioidomicosis (A), se estudiaron 50 sueros de pacientes con otras micosis profundas (B) y 92 sueros de personas sanas (C). Empleamos las fórmulas dadas por GALEN y GAMBINO6 y hallamos que la sensibilidad de ambas pruebas serológicas era comparable, sin diferencia estadísticamente significativa entre ellas (FC = 93%, IDGA - 88.4%). Dicha sesibilidad tendia a disminuir con el tratamiento, siendo más marcada su baja durante las observaciones post-terapia. Al analizar la especificidad se encontró que la IDGA era totalmente específica, no encontrandose falsos positivos en las poblaciones controles estudiadâs (B y C). La FC mostró un 96.7% de especificidad frente a la población C y un 82% frente a la B, siendo estadistisarnente significativa la diferencia entre ambas. Basados en los datos ariteriores, se buscó et valor predictivo, hallaridose que la IDGA da seguridad completa para el diagnóstiso en cualquiera de los períodos evaluados no asi la FC, la que mostró disminución de tales valores durante la terapia y la post-terapia. La curva respectiva mostró como a medida que pasaba el tiempo, disminuía la posibiildad de diferenciar la paracoccidioidomicosis (A) de otras micosis (B), manteniendose, sinembargo, la diferencia con los controles normales (C).